其他答案集中在大o符号和实际例子上。我想从理论的角度来回答这个问题。下面的解释必然缺乏细节;Michael Sipser的《计算理论导论》是学习计算复杂性理论的一个很好的来源。
图灵机
研究计算问题的最广泛的模型是图灵机。图灵机有一个一维的纸带,上面有符号,用作存储设备。它有一个磁带头,用来从磁带中读写。它有一个决定机器行为的转换表,这是一个在机器创建时决定的固定硬件组件。图灵机在离散时间步长下工作,如下所示:
它能读出胶带下面的符号。
根据符号及其内部状态(只能取有限个值)的不同,它从转换表中读取三个值s、σ和X,其中s是内部状态,σ是符号,X是左或右。
它的内部状态变成了s。
它将读取的符号更改为σ。
它将磁带头按照X的方向移动一步。
图灵机是强大的计算模型。它们能做你的数字计算机能做的一切。它们是在现代数字计算机出现之前由理论计算机科学之父和数学家艾伦·图灵提出的。
时间复杂度
It is hard to define the time complexity of a single problem like "Does white have a winning strategy in chess?" because there is a machine which runs for a single step giving the correct answer: Either the machine which says directly 'No' or directly 'Yes'. To make it work we instead define the time complexity of a family of problems L each of which has a size, usually the length of the problem description. Then we take a Turing machine M which correctly solves every problem in that family. When M is given a problem of this family of size n, it solves it in finitely many steps. Let us call f(n) the longest possible time it takes M to solve problems of size n. Then we say that the time complexity of L is O(f(n)), which means that there is a Turing machine which will solve an instance of it of size n in at most C.f(n) time where C is a constant independent of n.
它不是依赖于机器吗?数字计算机能做得更快吗?
Yes! Some problems can be solved faster by other models of computation, for example two tape Turing machines solve some problems faster than those with a single tape. This is why theoreticians prefer to use robust complexity classes such as NL, P, NP, PSPACE, EXPTIME, etc. For example, P is the class of decision problems whose time complexity is O(p(n)) where p is a polynomial. The class P do not change even if you add ten thousand tapes to your Turing machine, or use other types of theoretical models such as random access machines.
理论与实践的差异
通常假设整数加法的时间复杂度为O(1)。这种假设在实践中是有意义的,因为计算机使用固定数量的位来存储许多应用程序的数字。理论上没有理由假设这样的事情,所以加法的时间复杂度是O(k)其中k是表示整数所需的比特数。
寻找一类问题的时间复杂度
显示问题时间复杂度的最直接方法是构造一个图灵机,它能在O(f(n))时间内解决问题。为复杂问题创建图灵机并非易事;人们需要熟悉它们。图灵机的转换表很少给出,它是高层次的描述。随着人们对机器的熟悉,就更容易看到机器需要多长时间才能停下来。
说明一个问题不是O(f(n))时间复杂度是另一回事……尽管有一些像时间层次定理这样的结果,但这里还有很多悬而未决的问题。例如,NP中的问题是否在P中,即是否可在多项式时间内解决,是数学千年大奖中的七个问题之一,解决者将获得100万美元的奖励。